The adhan, or call to prayer, is a collection of verses sung or recited harmoniously by a muezzin, calling the Muslim faithful to the five daily prayers, ṣalāt, the times of which are determined by the sun, and therefore the times of the ṣalāt change with the seasons. The origin of the ritual of the adhan is traced back to the foundations of Islam.

The story of its creation continues to be a schismatic force between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims to this day. The widely held Sunni version holds that the adhan was written and first performed by Bilal ibn Ribah, one of Muhammad’s companions (sahabah) who received the instruction from Allah in a dream after it had been decided that Islam should find a purer method than bells or horns to call Muslims to prayer. This practice was then confirmed as the best possible solution by another sahabah named Umar, who saw the adhan performed in a vision during that same time. Conversely, Shi’a Muslims believe that the adhan was the sole creation of Muhammad who then asked Bilal to be the first muezzin. Of course, there are further variations from both of these perspectives.

Bilal was contemporaneous with Muhammad, born sometime near 580 BC. He had come to become one of Muhammad’s most trusted sahabah after being freed from slavery by Muhammad in Ethiopia because of his devotion to Islam despite severe punishment from his master. That Bilal’s purity of heart was considered of high measure by Muhammad is evidenced by a story in which several of the prophet’s followers advised Muhammad to give the distinction of muezzin to someone else. Due to the fact that Bilal’s Arabic pronunciation carried a heavy Ethiopian accent, he apparently was unable to effectively say the consonant “sh.” Muhammad is reported to have responded: “The ‘siin’ of bilal is ‘shiin’ in the hearing of Allah” meaning that Allah cares not for the physical manifestation, but rather the purity of heart and intention. While not much is known about Bilal’s death, it is reported that he died in his 60’s.

Bilal would not have performed the adhan atop the distinctively Islamic minaret, but rather in the market place, or at the house of Muhammad, which was also used as a prayer space. Minarets became an element of the call to prayer nearly a century after the death of Muhammad. These “lighthouses,” as the Arabic word alludes, became ideal locations for muezzins to vocalize the adhan in an audible fashion to reach the largest number of people. As time went on, the architectural formalization of the minarets became very exacting and even held a position of utilitarian value in acting as a ventilation system for the mosque itself. Very few muezzins call the adhan from these minarets now, preferring instead to sing into microphones in the musallah, or prayer hall, facing the Qiblah orienting Muslims toward Mecca.

While special circumstances may change some of the adhan, the following is a faithful representative. Below is a translation of the Fajr (pre-dawn) prayer. Note that it is a summation of the principal tenants of the Muslim faith. For the four other daily calls, all lines are recited except “Prayer is better than sleep.”

10,000 years of Egypt in less than 2000 words – Jeremy Johnson

Egypt itself has had a uniquely dynamic history going back over 10,000 years. While few are familiar with the culture preceding the dynastic ancients, the Nile valley has its earliest recognizable start with a collection of cultures which eventually congealed Egypt. This proto-dynastic Egyptian culture was known as the Naqada but consisted of numerous distinct personalities. After at least 5,000 years, this culture became solidified in regards to timelines, with the first unified king named Menes. Though other kings had existed prior, possibly even carrying the names of what we recognize as mythological Egyptian gods today, there was not a singular recognized authority. These two periods are called the proto and pre-dynastic periods.

During the next few thousand years the Egyptian culture made startling advancements in nearly every area of ancient technology until finally the music ended and the kingdom was fractured. This period was called the Old Kingdom. The first intermediate period is characterized by consistent power grabbing between two dynastic Egyptian forces generally separated as upper and lower. By around 2050 BCE Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II managed to dominate the northern kingdom (called lower due to the Nile flow) and united Upper and Lower Egypt. This end to a dark time lasting longer than 100 years became a symbolic marker for the rest of ancient Egypt’s history repeating the then stale story of their first unifying king. The duality of the Upper and Lower unification became an important mythological metaphor and continues to have meaning today in cultural practice.

The duality of Egypt was always a dangerous reality, and the responsibility of finding the way to continue unification had always been a very difficult business for the Pharonic office. The First Intermediate Period consisted of 5 dynasties in the span of 100 years. This time is also called Egypt’s Dark Age where power grabbing and corruption ensured the countries divide once again until the Theban Kings were able to overtake the North and reunify again.

The Middle Kingdom saw 400 years of prosperity and continued advancement coupled with a falling ceiling caused by the needs of the people exceeding the production of the country. During the end of the 12th dynasty, the Pharaoh began a practice of welcoming Asiatic settlers to work on monuments. These settlers would make up what we know of today as the foreign invaders (Hyksos) and were able to overtake the kingdom. With Egypt’s penchant for keeping political control near the boundary of the Nile floods, military strength was not something they were particularly good at. The Middle Kingdom closed with an overtaken country.

100 years of foreign rule passed, also called the 2nd Intermediate Period. It can be said that while Egypt was under Hyksos rule, the real problem was the refracturing of old wounds from the past. Each previously unified grouping again was able to assert their own individual base until Theban forces managed to muster the strength to take the kingdom back and put the pieces back together again.

The next period, called the New Kingdom or the Egyptian Empire, made military strength a much higher priority, this aided not only in keeping invaders out but ensured a more stable unification. For 500 years the dynasty line maintained itself very well and is seen as the golden age of Ancient Egypt. Eventually the dynasties began to fail to a non-military force. The growing control of priests began to erode the power of the Pharaoh and eventually threw the country back into its chaotic power grabbing past.

The Third Intermediate Period is characterized by a confusing web of control swapping between families, cultures, politicians, and priests. The good name and reputation of the Egyptian kingdom became tarnished. With the loss of allies protecting against the Assyrians, Egypt was eventually overtaken around 650 BCE. The Assyrians didn’t particularly have interest in personally maintaining the area, and instead implanted puppet rulers, known now as the Saite kings, and went on their way.

Thus begins the Late Period. During the time of the Saite kings, the Egyptians regained some economic and social worth and were eventually able to shake off the remaining Assyrian influence with the help of Greek mercenaries. By 525 BCE the Persians had their eye set on the country, and were able to overtake it. The Persian king and founder of the Persian Empire, Cambyses II, became the Egyptian Pharaoh but maintained control from a distance. Until 332 BCE the political control of the kingdom had a few changes of hands, including the last native dynasty, until the Persians regained control and then gave it up without a fight to Alexander the Great.

The Ptolemaic period began with the Egyptians seeing Alexander the Great as a savior whose Greek successors, the Ptolimies, based their ruling model on that of the native Egyptian system and ruled from the country itself. Greek culture did not attempt to supplant the ancient customs, but instead foster them. This period is marked by striking philosophical and technological advancements which can be said were the great influence of the Greek Golden Age. Of course all was not completely well, many native Egyptians made attempts to take back the country, each rebellion quieted caused more noisy heads to grow. As the Syrians began to take a greater interest in the country, the country began to have more problems than the Greeks could solve. Rome, who had become dependent on the grain supplies from Egypt decided to take matters into her own hands and enter the country militarily. In 30 BCE Egypt became a province of Rome after the famous defeat of Antony and Cleopatra by Octavian Augustus Caesar. Government office became Roman removing the Egyptian influence entirely.

For nearly 400 years, the history of Egypt shadows the History of Rome politically. Christianity began to take hold with Egypt being hit particularly hard. Egypt was “purged” recklessly of remaining pieces of ancient tradition including hieroglyphic writing. Nothing ever dies completely though, the Egyptian style of Christianity, called Coptic, still had trappings of the old days, and still does. The Roman Empire cracked into two parts in 395 CE leaving Egypt under the control of the Byzantium. After the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was considered legitimate.

The persistent Persian Empire became a growing concern throughout this time, by 639 CE Byzantium lost control to the Islamic empire with some help from native Egyptian rebels. Once under the Islamic empire, Ancient Egyptian, and Coptic blended into Sunni creating the unique brand of Sufi orders that still exist today. Things developed without great tragedy or change for the next 600 years under the Fatimid rule.

In 1250 CE the Mamluk period began as the military caste overtook the Fatimids. This rule was maintained until 1517 when the country changed control again, this time ruled by the Ottoman Turks. This new domination would be marred by the devastating “Black Death” which reduced the Egyptian population by nearly 40%, followed later by a famine that reduced the population again by a sixth. During recovery from these losses, Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798, but rule by the French lasted only two short years when the Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces defeated Napoleon and retook the country. Four years of utter chaos ensued until the commander of the Albanian forces, Muhammad Ali, asserted dominance and became the Viceroy to the Sultan of Istanbul.

After the death of Muhammad Ali, his progeny held the reigns until financial ruin brought on by overextension occurred in the late 1870’s. With the help of the French, Egypt began and completed the inordinately expensive Suez Canal, causing the country to go into substantial debt and causing the banks of Europe to follow her down. Only six short years after its completion, the Egyptian authority of the canal was sold to the British government. England and France now had monetary control of the country severing Egypt’s already murky independence. Native national unrest began to boil over as it had so many times in the past until England and France decided to intervene in Egyptian affairs directly sending armies that neutralized the Egyptian forces.

England restored control to the previous line calling the head of state a British Protectorate. The political climate was heated throughout most of the world during this time as The Great War began to sweep every nation. As the Country now saw a parliamentary style government, the Nationalist party again began to take hold inviting The United Kingdom to again become concerned. After exiling threats to British interests, Egypt engaged in her first modern revolution. The United Kingdom was not able to securely or consistently work out the social unrest and declared Egyptian independence (with conditions) on February 22, 1922. With this the Kingdom of Egypt set sail and lasted in technical form until 1953.

The Republic of Egypt was formed after the country survived continual instability due to remaining fragments of British control was augmented by greater parliamentary interference by King Farouk who was forced to abdicate to his son Fuad after the 1952 revolution. Finally in 1956, the successor to Fuad, Gamal Abdel Nasser took on the position of President. Full declaration of independence from the United Kingdom was made and nationalization of the Suez Canal was enforced. Upon Nasser’s death, the Presidential post was assumed by Anwar el Sadat who aligned with the U.S. side of the Cold War which made his goal of eliminating both secular and religious opposition to the new Egyptian order easier to enforce.

In 1973, the October War was initiated against Israeli occupied Sinai territory which had been captured six years prior. With greater outside influences at work, a cease fire was eventually reached and allowed Sadat to diplomatically repossess Sinai in exchange for peace with Israel. This peace treaty was signed in 1979. This independent move towards peace resulted in the expulsion of Egypt from the Arab League. Controversial as this move was, the vast majority of the Egyptian people supported their President. Sadat was assassinated shortly thereafter by a fundamentalist soldier. His replacement, the 4th Egyptian President, Hosni Mubarak continues to hold his post but certainly not without avid support and just as avid descent.